Chemical pollution risks across the life cycle of lithium-ion batteries and solar photovoltaics: A critical review

The rapid expansion of the lithium-ion battery (LIB) and photovoltaic (PV) industries, though indispensable to the global energy transition, introduces severe yet widely underestimated chemical pollution risks across their full life cycles. To our knowledge, this review delivers the first systematic cross-technology synthesis focusing specifically on per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), organophosphate esters (OPEs), and heavy metals as shared emerging contaminants across the two supply chains. PFAS emerge as the most pervasive class, with environmental monitoring detecting bis-perfluoroalkyl sulfonimide (bis-FASI) concentrations reaching 2,437 ng L -1 in surface water near PFAS- and LIB-related manufacturing facilities in the United States. This is among the highest industrial surface water PFAS concentrations recorded, highlighting gaps in current regulation of emerging PFAS classes. Organophosphate flame retardants in spent LIBs generate over 41 organophosphate and organofluorophosphate esters (O(F)PEs), 14 of which are newly identified structures that are chemically analogous to well-characterized neurotoxicants. Heavy metal contamination is geographically concentrated, with 87% of children residing in artisanal cobalt mining areas of the Democratic Republic of the Congo exhibiting urinary metal concentrations above exposure thresholds. Current risk governance frameworks exhibit critical deficiencies: life-cycle assessments prioritize climate metrics over chemical pollution, and standard monitoring protocols exclude emerging contaminants; pollution burdens are disproportionately concentrated in raw material extraction and informal end-of-life recycling across the Global South. Mitigation requires an integrated strategy encompassing material substitution (e.g., fluorine-free binders and solid-state electrolytes), closed-loop manufacturing, advanced recycling with PFAS capture, and strengthened extended producer responsibility (EPR) frameworks. Key research priorities include systematic toxicity characterization of novel transformation products, regulatory adoption of comprehensive PFAS analytical methods, exposure biomonitoring in mining and recycling communities, and the integration of chemical pollution footprints into lifecycle assessment and energy system models. The sustainability of clean energy transitions requires proactive management of chemical pollution footprints alongside carbon mitigation targets.