From battery fundamentals to sustainable management: A comprehensive review on thermal management, phase change materials, and emerging technologies

Batteries have emerged as an indispensable commodity in today's world. They power vast number of applications, ranging from small devices to large energy storage and electrical vehicles (EVs). Their ability to efficiently store and deliver electrical energy has made them a cornerstone of the global transition toward electrification and sustainable energy systems. Among various energy storage technologies, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have emerged as the most dominant due to their high energy density, long cycle life, and relatively low self-discharge rate. Despite the advantages, challenges such as thermal runaways, safe operation, degradation, aging, and environmental impact remain significant barriers to their widespread adoption. In this review, a comprehensive assessment of battery thermal management system (BTMS), beginning with battery fundamentals, heat generation mechanisms, and thermal challenges, followed by a critical comparison of active, passive, and hybrid cooling technologies is presented. Particular emphasis is placed on phase change materials (PCMs) and nano-enhanced PCMs, highlighting their thermal management capabilities, advantages, limitations, and recent technological developments. Furthermore, the review examines emerging BTMS, including AI-enabled intelligent thermal management, shape stabilized PCMs, immersion cooling, two-phase cooling, advanced thermal materials, and innovative battery cooling architectures. In contrast to many existing reviews that mainly focuses on cooling technologies, this review combines battery thermal management with sustainable battery waste management by discussing global recycling initiatives, the 5R framework (Reduce, Reuse, Repair, Refurbish, and Recycle), and circular economy strategies for end-of-life batteries. This review is expected to serve as a valuable resource for researchers, engineers, and practitioners working in battery technology, thermal management, advance materials, and sustainable energy storage systems.