Integrating E-nose, E-tongue, and GC–MS analysis reveals the volatile profile and flavor characteristics of different huajiao cultivars

Identifying key aroma markers within the complex volatile profile of huajiao is essential for varietal discrimination and flavor-oriented breeding, yet remains challenging. In this study, representative huajiao cultivars from the same geographical region were systematically analyzed using an integrated approach combining HS-SPME-GC–MS, E-nose, and E-tongue techniques. HS-SPME-GC–MS identified 89 volatile metabolites, among which 31 were confirmed as aroma-active compounds based on odor activity values. PLS-DA combined with variable importance in projection analysis identified six key compounds for cultivar discrimination: citronellal, α-muurolene, citronellol acetate, 2-methylbutyl butyrate, caryophyllene oxide, and (E )-Linalool furanoxide. Metabolic pathway analysis indicated that aroma variation was primarily associated with differences in terpenoid biosynthesis, including shifts between monoterpene and sesquiterpene accumulation and variations in oxidation and esterification efficiency. Consistent with chemical profiling, E-nose and E-tongue analyses successfully discriminated cultivars based on odor and taste attributes. These findings provide a chemical basis for flavor-driven huajiao breeding and product development.