Levels of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in foodstuffs: a review of dietary exposure, health risks, and regulatory challenges

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent environmental contaminants posing significant health risks through dietary exposure. This review compiles global data (November 2016-February 2025) on PFAS concentrations in food systems, including 48 studies on fish and shellfish, animal-origin food (livestock, poultry products, and milk), plant-based foods, and processed items. Seafood, especially shellfish and freshwater fish, emerges as a primary exposure route, frequently exceeding safety thresholds, with perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) as dominant contaminants. Animal-derived foods like eggs and milk also contribute significantly, particularly from contaminated regions. Plant-based foods typically show lower PFAS concentrations, although irrigation and soil pollution can increase their levels. Regional differences are notable, with elevated concentrations near industrial areas. Cooking methods affect PFAS concentrations, yet no single approach consistently reduces exposure. Health risks are especially pronounced for vulnerable groups (children, pregnant women, and frequent seafood consumers) whose dietary intake often surpasses the European Food Safety Authority's (EFSA) tolerable weekly intake. Regulatory challenges, emerging short-chain PFAS, and analytical variability persist. The pressing need for standardized monitoring, unified regulations, and targeted strategies to reduce dietary PFAS exposure and protect public health is highlighted here.