Endocrine disruptors and immune disruption: Mechanistic insights and future perspective

• The immune cell function and its development are vulnerable to EDCs • EDCs disturb immune homeostasis through regulating various cellular mechanisms • ROS, metabolic and epigenetic programming, and gut bacteria mediate EDCs-induced immune stress • The impact of EDCs on hematopoiesis needs to be study more Immune homeostasis is necessary for an organism to combat pathogens and for other non-immunological functions. A weakened immune response/system is a key factor in a person’s inability to fight common infections and in their propensity for chronic illnesses. One of the most significant contributors to immune perturbation is the unavoidable exposure to chemicals in our day-to-day lives. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are a category of chemicals typically identified as hormone-interfering substances that may directly or indirectly affect various physiological functions. Studies in cellular and animal models have demonstrated that EDC exposure not only affects function but also impairs the development of immune cells. Several cellular signaling pathways, including redox balance, inflammatory pathways, epigenetic and metabolic reprogramming, and the EGFR/ERK pathway, have been implicated in EDC-mediated immune dysfunction across different experimental systems. However, the immunotoxic effects caused by EDCs and their association with other EDC-related health adversities remain uncertain. This review describes the current state of knowledge and mechanistic insights, particularly regarding the impact on the immune system, of five major EDCs: phthalates, bisphenol, perfluorooctanoic acid, triclosan, and polychlorinated biphenyls. An in-depth understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms involved in EDC-associated immune dysregulation is necessary to implement safety guidelines and regulatory measures.