From alarm to action: a systematic review of pre-evacuation time influences in fire emergencies within the built environment

Pre-evacuation constitutes a critical phase influencing the success of fire evacuations. Despite its importance as a key parameter in evacuation modelling and building safety assessments, pre-evacuation time is inconsistently defined and remains insufficiently explored. This study systematically reviews and synthesises evidence from 78 peer-reviewed studies to examine the factors influencing pre-evacuation time during fire emergencies in the built environment. The evidence synthesised indicates that voice-based alarm signals, prior evacuation experience, and the presence of authority figures are associated with shorter pre-evacuation delays. In contrast, unexpected evacuation contexts, physical or cognitive impairments, engagement in high-attention tasks, and item retrieval activities are consistently linked to prolonged response times. The review also identifies several research gaps, including pronounced regional disparities in study distribution, persistent inconsistent definitions of pre-evacuation time, and limited attention to vulnerable populations. In response to these limitations, this review clarifies the SFPE-based definition of pre-evacuation time and provides a more refined and operational framework to support consistent application and comparison across studies. The findings further highlight practical implications, including the need to strengthen information delivery mechanisms, provide adequate support for occupants with reduced abilities, enhance evacuation training, and mitigate delays arising from pre-evacuation activities. Overall, this study advances understanding of pre-evacuation dynamics, provides an evidence-based foundation for policy formulation and evacuation model development, and contributes to improving fire safety management and reducing fire-related casualties.