Review of flash sintering: Materials, mechanisms and modelling

Flash sintering (FS) is an energy efficient sintering technique involving electrical Joule heating, which allows very rapid densification (<60 s) of particulate materials. Since the first publication on flash-sintered zirconia (3YSZ) in 2010, it has been intensively researched and applied to a wide range of materials. Going back more than a century ago, we have found a close similarity between FS of oxides and Nernst glowers developed in 1897. This review provides a comprehensive overview of FS and is based on a literature survey consisting of 88 papers and seven patents. It correlates processing parameters (i.e. electric field magnitude, current density, waveforms (AC, DC) and frequency, furnace temperature, electrode materials/configuration, externally applied pressure and sintering atmosphere) with microstructures and densification mechanisms. Theorised mechanisms driving the rapid densification are substantiated by modelling work, advanced in situ analysis techniques and by established theories applied to electric current assisted/activated sintering techniques. The possibility of applying FS to a wider range of materials and its implementation in industrial scale processes are discussed. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT Abbreviations: ECAS: Electric Current Assisted/Assisted Sintering; FS: flash sintering; SPS: spark plasma sintering; FSPS: flash spark plasma sintering; HIP: hot isostatic press; HP: hot press; T F : furnace temperature; T Onset : onset temperature; E : electrical field; T S : sample temperature; T Soft : softening temperature for glasses; T m : melting temperature; PTC or NTC: positive or negative temperature coefficient of electrical resistance; IS: impedance spectroscopy; OES: optical emission spectroscopy; AES: atomic emission spectroscopy; DBS: Dog-bone shape, L: length, W: width, T: thickness, D: diameter, H: height, R: rectangular, CS: cross-section; P: particle size; C: crystallite size; 3YSZ: 3 mol-% yttria-stabilised zirconia; I: ion, H: hole, V: vacancy, E: electron, P: proton