Daily movements and territory use by radio-collared wolves (Canis lupus) in Bialowieza Primeval Forest in Poland

Wolves (Canis lupus) (9 females and 2 males from 4 packs), were radio-tracked in a large Polish woodland in Bialowieza Primeval Forest in 1996–1999. Based on 360 days of radio tracking with locations taken at 30- or 15-min intervals, daily movement distances (DMDs) of wolves and their utilization of territories were analyzed. DMDs averaged 22.1 km for females and 27.6 km for males. In reproductive and subadult females, DMDs varied seasonally, with the shortest daily routes in May and the longest in autumn–winter. Little seasonal variation was observed in nonbreeding and unsuccessfully breeding adult females. An adult male covered the longest DMDs in February (mating season). The mean speed of travelling wolves was 2.2 km/h. Wolves' hunting activity affected the length and speed of their movements, both of which were higher before than after a kill was made. With growing abundance of prey, DMDs of wolves became shorter. Snow cover and rainfall had a negligible effect on wolf travel. The mean straight-line distance between consecutive daily locations (SLD) was 4.4 km, i.e., on average, 21% of the actual route covered by wolves. Daily ranges utilized by wolves averaged 21.4 km2, or 9% of the whole territory. Variation in SLDs and daily ranges was shaped predominantly by mating, breeding, and pup rearing. The pattern of territory use by wolves differed between seasons. In spring–summer, their movements concentrated around the breeding den and rendezvous sites, and the areas used on consecutive days overlapped extensively. In autumn–winter, wolves moved widely and utilized their territory in a rotational way, returning to the same parts every 6 days, on average. Rotational use is related to intense patrolling and defense of territory, but may also help wolves to avoid behavioral depression of prey availability.