The role of instructional quality in explaining socioeconomic disparities in mathematics achievement: a multilevel structural equation modeling of Swedish TIMSS 2019 data

Background Socioeconomic status (SES) is an important predictor of achievement, yet the classroom processes through which it may be associated remain debated. This study examines whether student-perceived instructional clarity and classroom management are associated with eighth-grade mathematics achievement in Sweden, and whether these dimensions of instructional quality are associated with SES differences in achievement at the student and classroom levels. Methods Using nationally representative TIMSS 2019 data (Grade 8), we estimated two-level structural equation models in Mplus, incorporating student weights and the plausible-value methodology. We modeled student-perceived instructional clarity and classroom management as latent constructs at within- and between-classroom levels. We tested the direct associations with achievement, indirect pathways between SES and achievement, and a random-slope model for the within-class SES effect, followed by cross-level interactions. Results Instructional clarity was positively related to achievement within classrooms, whereas classroom management showed a stronger association between classrooms; SES remained a robust predictor at both levels. Evidence for indirect associations was limited, as within-class indirect effects via clarity or management were negligible. A small between-class indirect path via classroom management was marginal only. The random-slope variance for the SES-achievement relationship was not statistically significant, indicating little cross-class heterogeneity. Accordingly, cross-level interactions with class-mean SES, clarity, and management were also nonsignificant. Class-mean SES and classroom management showed positive associations with mean achievement at the between-level. Conclusions Findings suggest instructional clarity was more strongly associated with individual-level achievement, while classroom management was more strongly associated with classroom-level achievement. However, these features were not strongly associated with SES-related disparities. Higher levels of instructional quality with higher overall achievement, but closing SES gaps requires combining classroom improvement with broader, equity-oriented policies.