The Evolution of Lures in Anglerfishes (Acanthuriformes: Lophioidei): Investigating Nature's Tackle Box

Anglerfishes (Lophioidei) exhibit extraordinary morphological and behavioral adaptations for luring prey, yet the evolutionary history and diversification implications of their lure types remain poorly understood. Here, we use a published total-evidence phylogeny of anglerfishes and their allies that integrates ultraconserved elements (UCEs), mitochondrial data, and morphological characters to investigate the origins and evolution of luring strategies across the clade. Our results indicate that mechanical lures evolved early, originating in the common ancestor of the Lophioidei during the Late Cretaceous. Chemical luring evolved independently twice: once in batfishes (Ogcocephalidae) during the Eocene, and again in the frogfish Antennarius striatus. Bioluminescent lures arose once within a derived deep-sea ceratioid lineage during the Oligocene. Bioluminescent luring is associated with major ecological transitions into pelagic deep-sea environments, elevated diversification rates, and key anatomical innovations, including the evolution of an escal pore and elaborate escae, which are potentially involved in both prey attraction and sexual signaling. Morphological variation in the illicium, the esca, and associated structures is most pronounced in ceratioid taxa, reflecting a complex interplay of ecological and behavioral factors shaping lure morphology across habitats. We also identify consistent patterns linking rotational range with documented luring behaviors, alongside a trend toward increased lure length that positions the esca in front of the mouth, bringing prey within striking distance during predation. Together, these findings offer new insights into the evolutionary origins and functional diversity of anglerfish lures and underscore the influence of morphology and environment on their remarkable predatory strategies.