Neural-immune-cardiovascular axis: from mechanistic crosstalk to therapeutic targets in cardiovascular disease

The neural-immune-cardiovascular axis represents an emerging and highly integrated physiological and pathophysiological concept, describing a complex bidirectional communication network between the nervous, immune, and vascular systems. This review systematically examines the pivotal role of this axis in maintaining cardiovascular homeostasis and in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases. We first provide an overview of the fundamental signaling pathways between the components of this axis. Subsequently, we delve into the specific crosstalk mechanisms within the axis in the context of major cardiovascular conditions, including atherosclerosis, hypertension, and heart failure. A central focus is placed on critically evaluating the potential therapeutic targets and intervention strategies that have emerged from our understanding of this axis's mechanisms. This review aims to provide a comprehensive perspective for understanding the multi-system pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases and for informing the development of novel therapeutic approaches.