Development of deep-sea mining and its environmental impacts: a review

With the increasing demand for mineral resources and the continuous depletion of terrestrial mineral deposits, deep-sea mining has garnered significant attention from governments, industries, and research institutions. However, the current deep-sea mining technologies remain incompletely developed, and their environmental impacts cannot be overlooked. This review presents a brief introduction to the three primary mineral resources found in the deep sea and the relative deep-sea mining system, along with their potential environmental risks. As the deep-sea benthic ecosystem is particularly vulnerable, the impacts on environment of each phase of deep-sea mining should be monitored and controlled. The movement and operation of seafloor mining vehicles generate both direct and indirect environmental impacts, including seabed destruction and plume generation. These effects pose significant threats to benthic organisms and alter the deep-sea environment. Finally, we present future perspectives and insights for subsequent research and the industrialization of deep-sea mining.