Adaptive Gamification and Game-Based Learning in Preschool and Early Primary Education: A Systematic Literature Review

In recent years, adaptive gamification and adaptive game-based learning (GBL) have attracted the interest of researchers and educators as a response to the “one-size-fits-all” approach of conventional gamified applications. However, their effectiveness has shown mixed results, and the literature concerning preschool and early primary education remains scattered. Therefore, we performed a systematic literature review of 19 empirical studies published between 2016 and 2026, following the PRISMA model, from a total of 5069 records identified across nine electronic databases. This review examines the methodological approaches and assessment tools employed, the content areas, educational levels, and educational contexts addressed, the theoretical frameworks and adaptive mechanisms utilised, and the learning and motivational outcomes reported for young learners. Our findings revealed a strong concentration on mathematics, a heavy reliance on researcher-developed platforms, and limited explicit theoretical grounding. Moreover, most studies adapted only the learning content, while the game elements themselves remained fixed. Although most studies reported positive learning and motivational outcomes, the results were not uniform, with prior knowledge being the most common moderating variable. Benefits are most visible when adaptive systems support children’s pacing, prior knowledge, or task difficulty, with some studies showing improvement in learning efficiency rather than learning gains. Overall, this review reveals the emerging trends and challenges in this field and provides a framework and insight for future researchers regarding the design of adaptive learning environments for young children.